State of Coast Report for Kenya (Second Edition) Enhancing Integrated Management of Coastal and Marine Resources in Kenya

Abstract

This report reviews the first State of Coast Report, published in 2009. The review used the current data and information on the status of Kenya’s coastal and marine resources and the environment, demographic and resource-use trends, current impacts and threats to sustainability, and management measures to mitigate and prevent continued resource overexploitation and environmental degradation. The report recognises the changes in the management structures and instruments, changes in economic fortunes of the region, accerelated economic development and other issues emerging during the intervening period. The information will serve as the foundation for the development of the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Action Plan for the next few years in addition to informing other programmes and strategies by stakeholders to enhance conservation of the coastal and marine environment. The preparation of this document was lead by KMFRI in collaboration and consultation with experts and managers in each sector from the coast region as well as resource users. The DPSIR (Drivers, Pressures, Status, Impacts and Responses) framework was used to prepare the document, in which the drivers and pressures of the changes are identified clearly, the status and impacts of pressures on the resources is evaluated, and the management response strategies and their effectiveness are discussed. The document contains 9 technical chapters which give an overview of the coastal environment of Kenya, coastal ecosystems and biodiversity, species of conservation concern, coastal communities, land and water resources, economic activities, major threats and impacts on coastal and marine biodiversity, governance of the coast and marine environment and emerging issues. Chapter one provides a detailed description of the methodology used to prepare the report while Chapter Two provides the geographical, physical and geological setting, climate as well as the factors that drive the state of the environment at the coast. Climatic, oceanographic and weather patterns are driven by the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) which influence seasonal monsoons and associated human activities. The factors drive changes in the environment through economic and demographic developments, urbanisation, tourism, agriculture, mining and shipping. The changes observed in the coast environment since the previous report include sea level rise and associated impacts of coastal erosion, reduction and higher variability of precipitation and river discharge. The changes are further exacerbated by local changes in water and land resource uses driven by population growth and the demand for food other natural resources. Chapter Three presents in detail the various ecosystems and biodiversity supported by the coastal and marine environment. The ecosystems include the estuaries and deltas, coastal sand dunes and beaches, terrestrial and coatal forests, mangroves, seagrass beds, rocky habitats and coral reefs, as well as pelagic and deep water ecosystems. The review established that these ecosystems have demished in size and species diversity due to the impacts of human settlemets and developments, which in turn has reduced their ability to provide ecosystem services required for sustainability. The most impacted ecosystems include coastal terrestrial forests, coastal forests and wet lands, coastal beaches, seagrass beds as well as coral reefs. The main drivers of change in these ecosystems are over-use by an increasing human population, economic development and climate change. Populations of key species within these ecosystems have been impacted to critical levels threatening their continued existence. The most affected species within the terrestrial environment include the primates and, reptiles; while in the marine environment sea mammals, turtles, and elasmobrachs are highly threatened by over-exploitation and the impacts of marine resources use. Mitigation measures to the threats are based on global concervation approaches, national environment preservation measures such as protected and conservation areas and local community based conservation areas and rehabilitation measures as well as the establishment of a seed bank store to preserve the genetic diversity of indigenous threatened plant species. Chapter Four describes the status of species of conservation concern. Species of conservation concern include those that are rare, endemic or show evidence of local population declines, and are classified by IUCN as critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, or near threatened. They include marine mammals (Cetaceans and Sirenians), sea turtles, bony fishes and elasmobranchs (sharks and rays), and terrestrial species (mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, and plants). Human induced pressures continue to impact on species of conservation concern driven by increasing coastal populations, poverty, shrining habitas, overexploitation of resources, coastal development and urbanization, and tourism. There are general uncertainties on their status; however, anecdotal evidence continues to indicate declining populations. Nonetheless, there have been concerted efforts since 2009 to document sightings of these species through collaborative monitoring efforts, which has enhanced knowledge on their distribution and enabled the idenfication of important areas of biodiversity. Chapter Five provides details of coastal communities in relation to the environment. Population growth is one of the key drivers of changes in the coastal environment. The national population census of 2009 estimated the coastal population at 3.3 million people with an annual growth rate of 2.9% compared to the national growth rate of 3.2%. The region has a population density of 40 persons/km2 , which is lower than the national average of 66 persons/km2 with a high concentratation in urban centres. Population size and distribution in the coastal region is driven by immigration and settlement of landless people. Settlements and land use patterns have not been well coordinated nor informed by the considerations of ecological sustainability. Densely populated areas have arisen without the necessary services including clean water supply, sanitation, education and health facilties, leading to decline in environment and human health. The rapid human population growth, combined with poor resource management has led to unsustainable extraction of natural resources, including water, forests, and fisheries. Chapter Six describes the land and water resources which are key factors to economic developments. These resources are also the part of the environment that is directly impacted by economic activities. The review shows an increase in protected and conservation areas, which serve as reserves of biological diversity and ecological functions. Large-scale agriculture and ranching also occupy a significant part of the land at the coast region. However, issues related to land tenure hinder investment and food production. Moreover, most of the land at the coast is not adjudicated and a large part of the population does not have the rights to the land they occupy, whereas a significant part of the land is owned by absentee landlords. Remarkable changes in land use patterns are taking place due to a huge demand for land for housing and settlement particularly near urban areas. Like most of Kenya, the coast region is water deficient. The coastline receives significant convectional rain that supports natural vegetation and agriculture. The main sources of domestic water are surface water, ground water, and rainwater. The densely populated coastline gets most of the water from the springs in Taita-Taveta, the River Athi and ground water from the shallow Msambweni aquifers. While piped water is the main source of water in the urban areas, few households have piped water in their houses, and the rest obtain water from vendors. In some areas of the coast such as Lamu, households mainly depend on harvested rainwater for domestic use. Interventions to improve the supply of domestic water include servicing of aged water supply systems, building of new dams; while desalination of seawater is proposed to increase freshwater supply to urban areas. Chapter Seven describes the key economic activities and the impacts on the coastal environment. The key sectors contributing to the coastal economony are tourism, ports and shipping, agricultural industry, fisheries, agriculture, forestry, and mining. The coast has diverse tourist attractions that support the national economy. These attractions include some of the best beaches in the world, wildlife conservation areas, and historical and cultural attractions. The review has established that the performance of the tourism sector has markedly declined mainly due to insecurity. However, tourism remains one of the most important economic activities in the region and the leading source revenue and of job opportunities. The impacts of the various economic activities on the environment include physical alteration and destruction of habitats; pollution; salination of ground water; and overextraction of resources among others. Recommendations have been made to address these impacts. Chapter Eight evaluates the major threats on coastal and marine biodiversity including pollution by effluent and solid waste, eutrophication, permanent alteration and destruction of habitats, invasive species as well as climate variability and adverse weather patterns. The key sources of pollution affecting coastal and marine environments are industrial discharge and oil spills, while sewage discharge and agricultural activities lead to nutrient enrichment of water bodies resulting in loss of biodiversity. In most of the larger coastal urban centers and their suburbs, the use of septic tanks soak pits, pit latrines and open drains is prevalent due to lack of sufficient sewege disposal systems resulting in the contamination of surface as well as ground water. Solid waste management systems are inadequate. The situation is made worse by the increasing use of non-biodegradable plastics that end up in the environment as microplastics threatening the health of wildlife and human beings. Large areas of land have been permanently altered by clearing of natural vegetation for agriculture, salt manufacture, mining, and extraction of construction materials without any plans for rehabilitation. The loss of natural vegetation and useful land to invasive plants pose significant risks on livelihoods and the environment, while variations in weather patterns constitute a serious threat to the region’s natural evnvironment and the economic and physical systems in which sustainable development and prosperity depends. The status of governance of the coastal and marine environment has been reported in Chapter Nine 9. The review established that the national government has enacted several legislations that effect natural resource management within the coast region based on the new National Constitution (2010). The new constitution devolved many functions on the management of natural resources and the environment from the National Government to County Governments. The provisions of the constitution have been operationalised through sector specific legislations. The EMCA CAP 387 is the key national frame work law for managing the environment. Other relevant laws include the Forest Conservation and Management Act 2016, the Fisheries Management and Development Act 2016, Wildlife Conservation and Management Act 2013, County Governments Act 2012 and the Land Act 2012 among others. Some new structures have also been established through the new legislations. They include, County Environment Committees, the Kenya Fisheries Service and Kenya Fish Marketing Authority. Through the new Constitution more responsibilities on management of natural resources have been vested on the Counties Governments. Public awareness on the importance of the coastal and marine environment has also improved. This is evidenced by large number of CBOs formed and actively participating in environmental conservation in the period. The review and improvement of legal frameworks providing for community participation in environmental management has also enhanced community participation in coastal resource management. As a result there are more BMUs; CFAs; and WRUAs formed and actively conserving the coastal environment than it was during the first state of coast reporting. However, environmental governance issues still exist. Recommendations have been made to address them. A number of emerging issues associated with new developments since the previous report are discussed in Chapter 10. These include the mega infrastrature projects, LAPSSET and the SGR and large scale farming initiatives aimed at improving food security. Other emerging issues, which mayalso have an impact on the coastal economy and the environment, include security, climate change, oil and gas exploration and development of offshore shipping infrastructure. Finally, Chapter Eleven of the report has made recommendations on the proposed interventions to address the issues affecting coastal and marine resources. Although many of the interventions proposed fall under specific sectors, it is important to note that embracing integrated and ecosystem-based approaches would be more beneficial as it will create synergy, avoid duplication, and result in outcomes that are more effective. A key starting point towards implementation will be to capture the recommended actions in the ICZM Action Plan for the next five years and in sectoral strategies, programmes and plans.